Trends over the past three decades in pesticide usage indicate that pesticides will not be phased out as agricultural science and technology advance.

Against the backdrop of rapid global agricultural development, rising living standards, and growing environmental awareness, consumers are placing increasing emphasis on the safety of crops and agricultural products, leading to heightened scrutiny of pesticide use in agriculture. Concerns abound regarding pesticide resistance in pests, diseases, and weeds, food safety, and environmental pollution, yet many prevailing views on pesticides remain unscientific and inaccurate. For instance, some hold that crops treated with pesticides are unsafe, that developed countries use far less pesticide than China, that the drawbacks of pesticides outweigh their benefits, or that the government should swiftly impose a comprehensive ban on their use. In light of these misconceptions, the author analyzes global pesticide‑use totals, as well as the total and per‑unit‑area pesticide consumption in both developed and developing countries, aiming to generate reliable, evidence‑based data. Such analysis is crucial for fostering a rational understanding of pesticides, promoting a balanced perspective on their role in agricultural development, cultivating a scientifically grounded view of pesticide use, and advancing sustainable agricultural practices.

01

Changes in Global Pesticide Use

According to data from the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), over the 30-year period from 1990 to 2020, global pesticide use exhibited an overall upward trend, reaching more than 2 million tonnes in 2020. Compared with 1.68 million tonnes in 1990, this represents an increase of approximately 900,000 tonnes, corresponding to a total growth rate of 57.9%. The fastest rate of growth occurred between 2005 and 2010, when usage rose by roughly 320,000 tonnes—the largest absolute increase (see Figure 1).

Figure 1: Changes in Global Total Pesticide Use, 1990–2020

Over the past three decades, agriculture has experienced rapid growth, and pest, disease, and weed management technologies have diversified. However, judging from global pesticide usage over this period, advances in modern agricultural practices have neither eliminated nor significantly reduced the amount of pesticides applied. Pesticides continue to play a crucial role in safeguarding crop health and boosting yields worldwide, and global pesticide consumption remains on an upward trajectory. To a certain extent, the development of pesticides is positively correlated with that of agricultural technologies. Research indicates that, driven by population growth and climate change, global pesticide use is likely to keep increasing in the future. In particular, climate change exerts a substantial influence on the growth of crops and weeds: as temperatures, precipitation, and atmospheric CO2 levels rise, weeds may proliferate rapidly, leading to a corresponding surge in pesticide applications.

According to FAO estimates, global annual food losses due to pests and diseases range from 20% to 40%. Meanwhile, the world’s population continues to grow, driving a substantial increase in food demand, even as arable land shrinks year after year. Consequently, boosting food production on limited farmland makes pest and disease management critically important. Research indicates that without the use of pesticides, yield losses could reach as high as 12% for fruits, 78% for vegetables, and 54% for cereals. Beyond agriculture, pesticides also deliver significant public‑health benefits: they are employed to control mosquitoes, lice, rodents, and other vectors in residential areas, workplaces, and commercial districts, thereby substantially reducing the risks and burdens associated with vector‑borne diseases. Thus, pesticides play an indispensable role in curbing public‑health threats posed by insect‑borne illnesses and agricultural pests and weeds, while simultaneously increasing global food production and making vital contributions to alleviating hunger and ensuring the supply of high‑quality crops.

With the rapid development of agriculture and the increasing spread of pests, diseases, and weeds, the global use and management of pesticides have been continuously refined and stabilized. Today, the international pesticide market has gradually entered a phase of stability and maturity, with growth rates becoming increasingly steady and approaching saturation—averaging 2% to 3% annually. Moreover, the market is trending toward the gradual phasing out of highly toxic, low‑efficacy pesticides, driven by higher standards in pesticide research, development, and marketing, as well as by the enactment of relevant laws and regulations aimed at regulating and guiding the pesticide industry.

02

Pesticide Use and Trends in Developed and Developing Countries

To examine the relationship between pesticide use and a country’s level of development, this paper conducts a comparative analysis of total pesticide consumption and per-unit-area application rates in the major pesticide‑using countries—namely, the developed nations of the United States and Japan, and the developing nations of China, Brazil, and Argentina.

2.1 Annual Pesticide Usage and Trends in Developed and Developing Countries

According to FAO data, over the past three decades, the United States, China, Brazil, Japan, and Argentina have all been major users of agricultural pesticides. Among them, the United States has maintained a relatively stable annual pesticide usage, consistently ranking first worldwide; China’s annual pesticide use ranked second globally until 2010, after which it began to decline gradually, falling to third place; Brazil’s annual pesticide consumption grew rapidly overall—ranking fourth before 1994, holding third place from 1994 to 2008, and surpassing China in 2009 to become the second-largest user; Argentina’s annual pesticide use exceeded that of Japan in 2000, placing it fourth; and Japan’s annual pesticide usage has shown a steady downward trend, dropping to fifth place after 2000 (see Figure 2).

Figure 2: Annual Pesticide Use in Five Countries, 1990–2020

2.2 Pesticide Application Rates per Unit Area and Their Trends in Developed and Developing Countries

According to FAO data, over the past three decades, Japan’s pesticide application rate per unit area has far exceeded that of other countries. In 2001, Japan reached its peak at 16.43 kg/hm². As of 2020, the corresponding rates for China, the United States, Brazil, Argentina, and Japan were 0.52, 1.00, 1.59, 2.23, and 11.9 kg/hm², respectively, with Japan ranking first and China recording the lowest (see Figure 3).

Figure 3: Changes in Pesticide Application Rates per Unit Area in Five Countries, 1990–2020

Thus, although China’s annual pesticide usage is higher than Japan’s, its per‑unit‑area pesticide application is far lower than Japan’s; moreover, China’s per‑unit‑area pesticide use also falls short of that in the United States, Brazil, and Argentina.

03

Analysis of Changes in Pesticide Use Between Developed and Developing Countries

The amount of pesticide use in each country is closely related to factors such as the level of economic development, the degree of agricultural advancement, population size, the area of arable land, and the level of pesticide management.

3.1 Analysis of Changes in Pesticide Usage in the United States

The United States is a major grain exporter, with its agricultural output primarily consisting of staple crops such as wheat, corn, and soybeans. According to data from 2005 to 2012, the country’s annual pesticide use—excluding biopesticides and antimicrobial agents—averaged approximately 400,000 to 450,000 metric tons. Agricultural applications account for the vast majority of this usage, representing roughly 90% of herbicide consumption, 85% of fungicide consumption, and 60% of insecticide consumption. FAO statistics further indicate that between 2012 and 2020, U.S. pesticide use totaled 408,000 metric tons. Although the overall growth rate compared with 1990 was only 1.7%, annual usage remained stable at just over 400,000 metric tons, placing the United States firmly at the top of the global rankings.

The United States is among the earliest countries in the world to regulate and manage pesticides. The Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act of 1910 established standards for insecticides and fungicides, emphasizing quality assurance in pesticide trade. The U.S. Code of Federal Regulations (CFR), enacted in 1936, provided detailed guidance on registration procedures, documentation requirements, and data protection. In 1947, the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, & Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) introduced the requirement for pesticide registration and set forth clear provisions regarding registration and label content, making it a pivotal piece of pesticide legislation. Furthermore, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) stipulates that any product imported into the United States and intended for domestic use must be registered in accordance with applicable regulations—except for certain “low‑risk pesticides” designated by the EPA as posing minimal risk to human health and the environment, whose active and inert ingredients are exempt from this requirement. Under CFR Title 40, Subchapter I, Part 158, “Pesticide Data Requirements,” if pesticide residues in raw agricultural commodities undergo concentration during processing, data on the residues and their levels in processed products must be submitted, and a higher maximum residue limit (MRL) must be established for those processed commodities. Additionally, the United States applies a zero‑tolerance policy to certain pesticides, meaning that no detectable residues are permitted; typically, the EPA uses a threshold of 0.1 mg/kg as the criterion for compliance.

Judging from the annual volume of pesticide use and the numerous pesticide-related regulations and policies that have been enacted, the importance of pesticides in U.S. agriculture is self‑evident. Pesticides occupy a pivotal role in American agricultural production, and the United States has established a relatively stable and mature management system covering their application, regulation, import‑export trade, and residue limits. Even in the United States—whose level of agricultural modernization ranks among the highest in the world—agricultural production remains inseparable from pesticides, despite rapid advances in agricultural science and technology.

3.2 Analysis of Changes in Pesticide Usage in Japan

Japan is a developed country with a high level of agricultural modernization. In 2020, its total pesticide use amounted to 51,970 tonnes, a 34.9% decrease compared with 79,821 tonnes in 1990.

According to reports, in Japan, the absence of chemical pest and disease control can result in yield losses of up to 28% for rice, 36% for wheat, 30% for soybeans, 100% for peaches, 63% for cabbage, 24% for carrots, and 61% for cucumbers. Meanwhile, Japan’s annual pesticide usage has been declining, primarily due to its limited land area—where arable farmland continues to shrink as the population grows—and also because of the country’s vigorous promotion of green and organic agriculture, along with policies advocating reduced use of pesticides and chemical fertilizers. Over the past six decades of developing green agriculture, the application of chemical fertilizers and pesticides has remained a central focus of agricultural management. To address environmental pollution and declining product quality caused by excessive emphasis on yield, Japan enacted the Pesticide Control Law in 1948. Subsequently, it implemented measures to regulate both the types and quality of pesticides used in production at the source, while setting strict limits on chemical residues in food products to ensure safety, and continuously strengthening the review and assessment of pesticide safety. Japan is among the earliest countries to establish comprehensive systems for regulating and managing pesticides, boasting a well‑developed institutional framework. In controlling pesticide residues in food, Japan operates an “Positive List System”: for pesticides with established maximum residue limits (MRLs), their levels in food must not exceed those MRLs; for pesticides without established MRLs, their levels are capped at a uniform standard of 0.01 mg/kg. Certain pesticides exempt from MRL requirements are not subject to this limit. This system applies equally to processed agricultural products. Furthermore, Japan actively encourages farmers to adopt environmentally friendly and organic farming practices, helping to reduce production and operational costs associated with technological transitions. Through initiatives such as the “Direct Support Measures for Environmentally Friendly Agriculture,” the government provides direct subsidies to eco‑farmers and organic farmers, achieving notable progress in reducing pesticide and fertilizer use. Early agricultural support policies have also boosted crop yields, ensured food safety, and significantly cut down on the use of chemical inputs.

3.3 Analysis of Changes in Pesticide Usage in Brazil

Brazil is a major agricultural power in South America, one of the world’s leading users of pesticides, and also among the developing countries with the strictest and most representative pesticide regulations. Over the past three decades, Brazil’s total pesticide consumption has shown a clear upward trend: in 1990, it stood at nearly 50,000 tons, while by 2020 it had surpassed 370,000 tons—an increase of more than 300,000 tons compared with 1990, representing a staggering growth rate of 659%. Brazil’s annual pesticide usage now ranks second only to that of the United States. Research indicates that in 2020, the area under pesticide application continued to expand, increasing by 107 million hectares—up 6.9% from 2019. A key driver of this trend is the expansion of acreage devoted to multiple crops, while another factor is the mounting pressure from pests, diseases, and weeds affecting these crops. As of the first quarter of 2023, the area treated with pesticides in Brazil grew by 13.4% year on year, largely due to pest infestations in soybean cultivation. Oilseed crops accounted for 37% of Brazil’s total pesticide‑treated area, a four-percentage-point rise from 33% in the same period of 2022. These trends underscore that, even in today’s modern agricultural landscape, Brazil’s overall pesticide use continues to grow.

In the area of pesticide regulation, Brazil’s Law No. 7,802, enacted in 1989, is a relatively comprehensive piece of legislation that sets forth provisions governing pesticide research, testing, import and export, and registration. It also includes specific regulatory measures for the management of other pesticide components—such as inert ingredients, additives, and special raw materials—as well as for the recycling of pesticide packaging. Furthermore, with respect to pesticide registration, Brazil imposes comparatively stringent requirements, necessitating extensive registration data and a lengthy review process.

3.4 Analysis of Changes in Pesticide Usage in Argentina

Argentina is primarily an agricultural and pastoral economy, serving as a major global producer of staple crops and meat products—earning it the reputation of being the “world’s granary and meat storehouse.” It is also one of the world’s largest users of pesticides. Over the past three decades, Argentina’s total pesticide consumption has shown a steady upward trend at a rapid pace: from 26,000 tonnes in 1990 to over 240,000 tonnes in 2020, representing an astonishing overall growth rate of 822.5% and underscoring the swift expansion of pesticide use.

Following Argentina’s relaxation of its stringent controls on imported pesticides, agricultural production costs have decreased, major grain export taxes have been eliminated, and soybean export taxes have been reduced, prompting greater pesticide use among Argentine farmers. In Argentina, the pesticide market is dominated by herbicides, with glyphosate, atrazine, and 2,4‑D being the most frequently applied. Researchers analyzed selected water sources in two agricultural regions of Santiago del Estero, revealing that the most commonly detected pesticides were herbicides, with atrazine and metolachlor at the highest concentrations, and glyphosate and aminomethylphosphonic acid at elevated levels. Effective July 24, 2019, Argentina banned the use of 2,4‑D butyl ester and its isobutyl ester formulations, while the National Service of Agrifood Health and Quality (Senasa) has tightened oversight of the pesticide market and imposed penalties for violations. Starting in 2023, Senasa will prohibit plant protection products containing ethyl parathion and methyl parathion as active ingredients.

3.5 Analysis of Changes in Pesticide Usage in China

China is a major agricultural country, and the trend in pesticide use over the past 30 years can be divided into two phases: from 1990 to 2014, pesticide application increased steadily; from 2015 to 2020, China implemented a dual reduction policy for both pesticides and chemical fertilizers, leading to a year-on-year decline in pesticide use. In 2020, pesticide usage exceeded 270,000 tonnes, an increase of approximately 110,000 tonnes compared with 150,000 tonnes in 1990, representing a total growth rate of 76.9%.

Since the implementation of the Zero‑Pesticide‑Use Initiative in 2015, pesticide use in China has shown a steady downward trend. In terms of pesticide regulation, the Food Safety Law of the People’s Republic of China explicitly prohibits the use of highly toxic and acutely toxic pesticides on crops listed by the state and has accelerated the phase‑out of such products. Effective September 1, 2022, registrations for the active ingredients and formulated products of phorate, methyl isofenphos, isocarbophos, and monocrotophos were revoked, and their production was banned; legally produced batches may continue to be sold and used within their shelf life, but sales and use will be prohibited starting September 1, 2024. Furthermore, beginning December 1, 2023, registrations for formulations containing omethoate, carbofuran, methomyl, and aldicarb may be revoked, with production likewise banned; legally manufactured products may still be sold and used within their quality‑assurance period, but sales and use will be prohibited from December 1, 2025. Only the production of the corresponding active ingredients for export by authorized manufacturers will be permitted. In addition, China continues to enhance the innovation capacity and competitiveness of novel pesticide formulations, focusing on the research and development of low‑toxicity, next‑generation pesticides. Against the backdrop of ongoing optimization of the pesticide portfolio, the use of highly active agents—such as diamide‑based and neonicotinoid insecticides, strobilurin fungicides, and HPPD‑inhibiting herbicides—is steadily increasing, while the per‑hectare application rates of conventional chemical pesticides have declined markedly. In 2020, pesticides classified as micro‑, low‑, or moderately toxic accounted for 98.1% of total usage, whereas highly toxic pesticides represented less than 1%; meanwhile, the volume of biopesticides rose to 83,000 tonnes, growing at an average annual rate of 3.4%. Regarding pesticide residue management, China has advanced to the forefront of global developments in residue‑testing technologies. To date, the country has established more than 400 national standards for pesticide‑residue analysis and 7,107 maximum residue limits (MRLs) under GB 2763–2019, which comprehensively cover both commonly approved pesticides and the major food commodities consumed by the population. Moreover, among developing nations, China is the only country that has put in place a comprehensive pesticide risk‑assessment system, encompassing dietary risk assessment, ecological/environmental risk assessment, and health risk assessment, thereby rigorously controlling pesticide‑residue risks and ensuring the safety and edibility of Chinese agricultural products.

04

Discussion and Conclusion

As a developed country, the United States ranks first worldwide in total pesticide use and fourth in pesticide application per unit area; Japan, meanwhile, leads the world in pesticide use per unit area, far surpassing that of other nations. This indicates that even developed countries rely on pesticides, with usage levels no lower than those in developing countries, and that pesticide consumption does not decline despite advances in agricultural science and technology. China, Brazil, and Argentina, as developing nations, likewise cannot do without pesticides to support their agricultural sectors. In their early stages of development, these countries experienced relatively rapid growth in pesticide use, likely due to lower agricultural management standards and rapid population expansion. Nevertheless, overall, their total pesticide expenditures remain below those of the United States, and their per‑unit‑area pesticide use is significantly lower than Japan’s.

With population growth and increasingly erratic climate patterns, the demand for food production is likely to rise again in the future, posing significant challenges to agricultural output. Consequently, pesticides will remain a vital tool for countries seeking to control pests and diseases, and they are unlikely to be phased out anytime soon. Pesticides will not become obsolete with advances in agricultural science; rather, such advances encompass the development and application of more environmentally friendly, efficient, and low‑toxicity products. Before registration, every pesticide must undergo rigorous ecotoxicological and environmental toxicological testing. Although Japan’s per‑unit‑area pesticide use far exceeds that of other nations, its citizens do not harbor concerns about food safety, demonstrating that food safety hinges not on pesticide use per se, but on the scientific application and management of these chemicals. As developed economies, the United States and Japan have established earlier and more comprehensive systems for regulating pesticide use and setting maximum residue limits, with stricter and more complex standards for pesticide residues in food. Developing countries should draw on these proven, effective measures and adapt them to their own national pesticide‑management frameworks. Looking ahead, as agricultural technology continues to advance rapidly, countries will impose even stricter and more standardized regulations on pesticide use and residue levels. Meanwhile, innovations in pesticide manufacturing will yield qualitative leaps, driving research and development toward greener, more innovative, safer, and more efficient solutions. Therefore, it is essential to adopt a balanced, scientifically grounded perspective on the use and evolution of pesticides.

05

Recommendations on the Use and Management of Pesticides in China

5.1 Strengthening Public Education on Pesticides

The public’s fear of pesticides stems primarily from a lack of understanding regarding the pesticide registration process, toxicological data, proper scientific application, maximum residue limits, acceptable daily intake levels, national regulatory frameworks, and pesticide usage patterns in developed countries. Therefore, it is essential to tailor outreach efforts to different audiences and employ diverse communication strategies to enhance public awareness and education about pesticides. Relevant government agencies should take responsibility for disseminating information on pesticide regulations and registration procedures, helping the public appreciate China’s stringent oversight and the safety of pesticide products. Pesticide manufacturers should educate users on the appropriate targets, application methods, and required pre-harvest intervals, ensuring safe and effective use. Meanwhile, researchers should engage students and the general public by sharing knowledge about the historical evolution of pesticides, their mechanisms of action, and best practices for safe application.

5.2 Strictly regulate the pesticide market to achieve comprehensive oversight of pesticides.

Relevant pesticide regulatory authorities should rigorously crack down on the illegal sale of highly toxic pesticides in the market, trace their sources, and ensure that pesticides explicitly banned by the state are no longer used. Offenders must be held accountable and punished, while market supervision and management of pesticides should be strengthened. The circulation of pesticides must be tightly controlled, and agricultural IoT technologies should be fully leveraged to establish and improve a robust pesticide traceability system. Furthermore, the production environment of pesticides should be monitored, and systems for tracking and auditing pesticide use should be put in place, thereby achieving comprehensive oversight. In addition, pesticide manufacturers should prioritize the research and development of new, high‑efficacy, low‑toxicity, and low‑residue formulations, balancing efficacy against pests and diseases with safety and reduced environmental impact. To mitigate pesticide pollution, biopesticides, like chemical pesticides, should also undergo continuous innovation and variety updates. Meanwhile, agricultural extension agencies should raise the level of pesticide application, intensify the introduction and demonstration of integrated pest and disease management techniques, upgrade spraying equipment, and enhance application practices. In agricultural production, pesticides should be combined with advanced application tools to carry out pest and disease control, increase pesticide utilization rates, and minimize instances of under‑application or over‑spraying.

Source: "Pesticides" Issue No. 10, 2023 Authors: Liao Liyan, Ge Liqing, Han Qingli